下面是小编为大家整理的电影降临中语言学,供大家参考。希望对大家写作有帮助!
电影降临中的语言学2篇
第一篇: 电影降临中的语言学
第１８卷
２００８焦
第４期
１２月
信阳农业高等专科学校学报
ＪｏｕｒｎａｌｏｆＸｉｎｙａｎｇＡｇｒｉｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌＣｏｌｌｅｇｅ
Ｖ０１．１８Ｎｏ。４
ＤｅＣ．２００８
索绪尔的共时语言学和历时语言学
周亚华
（中原工学院外语系，河南郑州４５０００１）
摘
要：对共时语言学和历时语言学的区分是索绪尔在语言学领域做出的突出贡献。本文主要探讨了索绪尔
语言学产生的背景、共时语言学和历时语言学的定义和特点、共时语言学和历时语言学的关系以及确立共时和历
时语言学的意义。
关键词：索绪尔；
共时语言学；
历时语言学
中图分类号：啪一０６
文献标识码：Ａ
文章编号：１００８－４９１６（２００８）０４－００８３－０４
ＳｙｎｃｈｒｏｎｉｃＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄＤｉａｃｈｒｏｎｉｃＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｆ
ＺＨＯＵＹａ．ｈｕａ
Ｓａｎｓｓｕｒｅ
（Ｄｅｐｔ．ｏｆＦｏｒｅｉｇｎ
Ｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ，ＺｈｏｎｇｙｕａｎＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ
０ｆＴｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙ，Ｚｈｅｎｇｚｈｏｕ４５０００１，Ｃｈｍａ）
Ａｂｓｔｒａｃｔ：ＴｈｅｄｉｖｉｓｉｏｎｏｆＳｙｎｃｈｒｏｎｉｃＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄＤｉａｃｈｒｏｎｉｅＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓｉｓｔｈｅｇｒｅａｔｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎｏｆＦ．ｄｅ．Ｓａｎｓ－
ｓｕｒｅ．Ｔｈｉｓａｒｔｉｃｌｅｍａｉｎｌｙ
ｃｏｖｅｌｐ３
ｔｈｅｆｏｌｌｏｗｉｎｇｐｏｉｎｔｓ：ｔｈｅｂａｃｋｇｒｏｕｎｄｏｆＳａｕｓｓｕｒｅ’ｓＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ；
ｔｈｅｆｅａｔｕｒｅａｎｄｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎ
ｏｆＳｙｎｃｈｒｏｎｉｃＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄＤｉａｃｈｒｏｎｉｅ
Ｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ；
ｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆＤｉａｃｈｒｏｎｉｃａｎｄＳｙｎｃｈｒｏｎｉｃＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｔｈｅｓｉｇｎｉｆ－
ｉｅａｎｅｅｏｆｔｈｉｓｄｉｖｉｓｉｏｎ．
Ｋｅｙｗｏｒｄｓ：Ｆ．ｄｅ．Ｓａｕｓｓｕｒｅ；
ＳｙｎｃｈｒｏｎｉｃＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ；
ＤｉａｅｈｒｏｎｉｅＬｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ
瑞士语言学家索绪尔是现代语言学的奠基人之
面来探讨索绪尔的共时语言学和历时语言学。
一，他从历史比较语言学中走出来，开辟了研究语言
学的新篇章。他的《普通语言学教程》（法文版）自
１
索绪尔语言学产生的背景
１９１６年问世以来，先后被翻译成不同的语言，其贡献
远远超出了语言学范畴。他对相关的人文、社科等领
域也产生了广泛而深远的影响。他是现代思想史上
的杰出人物。不仅如此，他还敏锐地觉察出了比较语
言学的缺陷，即缺乏对人类语言这种特殊现象的本质
研究，并提出了哲学意义上的语言学研究范畴。在语
言学的发展过程中，索绪尔的语言学理论无疑是一个
重要的里程碑，他为现代语言学的发展奠定了坚实的
理论基础。在提出了什么是“真正的语言科学”之
１９世纪末２０世纪初历史比较语言学已经完成
了它的历史使命，走到了尽头。正当时代呼唤—种用
新的视角新的方法来研究语言的时候，在１９世纪中
期初露头角的普通语言学同汹涌而至的各种语言学
流派呈现出一派百家争鸣、纷繁繁荣的景象。当然，
索绪尔的理论并不是凭空想象和产生的，而是与当时
的社会科学各种思潮的发展有着密切关系的，尤其是
与社会学、心理学和语言学的发展密不可分。
德克海姆是现代社会学的创始人之一，他著有
后，索绪尔还质疑了以往语言学家的研究对象和研究
《社会学研究方法原则》（Ｒｕ／ｅｏｆｔｈｅ
ＳｏｃｉｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌＭｅｔｈ・
方法。经过长时间的思考和研究，他区分了言语（ｐａ．
ｏｄ）（１８９５）和《论自杀：社会学研究》（１ｅＳｕｉｃｉｄｅ，ｅｔｕｄｅ
ｒｏｌｅ）和语言（１ａｎｇｕｅ），并提出了语言的共时态和历时
ｄｅ
ｓｏｃ／ｏ／ｏｇ／ｅ）（１８９７）等书。他创建了一整套新的理
态…。本文从索绪尔语言学产生的背景、共时语言
学和历时语言学的定义及特点、共时与历时语言学的
关系以及确立共时语言学和历时语言学的意义等方
论，并首先给“社会事实”下了定义，并把它看作是物
质的东西。他同时指出，“社会事实”是一种行为，不
论它是否有固体性质，它对每个个人都有外部
收稿日期：２００８－０９．１２
作者简介：周亚华（１９７５－），女，河南汝南人，讲师．
・８３・
万方数据
第１８卷第４期
４言１１日农业高等专科学校学报
２００８年１２月
制约。德克海姆还认为：法律、衣着、性别、言语等都
是具有影响的，它们像石头和力一样，应该被看作是
物质的东西。德克海姆反对用历史的原因来解释当
前的社会现实。他说社会事实是不受历史发展阶段
制约的。德克海姆的这些思想有可能影响到了索绪
尔的语言观，虽然索绪尔从未承认过，但是他的《普
通语言学教程》却自始至终地体现了这些原则。索
绪尔认为，语言也是一种社会事实，一种行为。同样
语言也有其外部制约，那就是一种抽象的语言系统。
这种语言系统同社会制度一样，是一切成员必须遵守
的、约定俗成的社会制度。其实许多语言使用者都不
懂得这个抽象的系统，即使他们能够熟练地使用语
言。如同社会事实一样，语言也不受历史发展的制
约‘引。
与此同时，奥地利心理学家佛洛伊德提出了精神
分析治疗法。他同时还提出了一个非常重要的概念，
即“下意识”（ｔｈｅｕｎｃｏｎｓｃｉｏｕｓ）。佛洛伊德假借历史
原因解释社会中的规范和心理情结来说明存在一个
“集体心理”，也叫“下意识”心理。他认为，正是因为
有了这种心理，所以一件事情过去之后，继续深深地
影 响着人类。佛洛伊德将精神世界分层，确立了无意
识在人的精神世界中的重要地位。佛洛伊德的观点
符合当时的结构主义思潮，即把任何行为都看成是受
一个规范制约的。语言的行为规范在于语言规则，心
理上的规范则在于心理组织的机能。将对语言与无
意识关系的研究推向前进的是法国当代精神分析学
家拉康，他的研究是从对佛洛伊德的批判开始的。在
拉康看来，佛洛伊德的三分法中的“自我”带有太过
浓重的旧理性主义哲学色彩，并不符合精神分析学创
立以来就获得的对人的新认识。他认为以语言分析
方法发掘出来的无意识，只可能是一段话语、一篇文
本。由此，拉康提出了他的著名论断：无意识就是语
言，就是话语。而语言存在的基本条件就足要有一个
对话者；
主体说话时寻求的是他人的回应。没有他
人，主体就没有了说话的理由和必要。但是无意识可
以通过语言的能指连环来象征性地沟通，并不等于无
意识本身就有语言结构，拉康在这里就未免显得武断
了。这个问题的解决右赖于索绪尔的语言学理论。
索绪尔本人虽然并未就语言与无意识问题展开专门
的论述，但其语言理论却为解决这一问题提供了良好
的契机。在索绪尔看来，语言是一个系统，语言符号
是任意的，能指与所指之间的关系并不是必然的。索
绪尔还明确指出，语言只是形式而不是实质。由此，
我们不单看到了拉康得益于索绪尔的地方，而且也看
到了拉康的局限。这是因为，正是由于语言足形式而
・８４・
万方数据
不是实质，我们在赋予语言通向无意识能力的同时，
才必须理清语言与无意识的界限；
在确认语言是形式
而不是实质的同时，也要确认无意识属于实质而不是
单纯的形式。
与索绪尔同时代的其他语言学家对索绪尔思想
的影响也是不可小视的。其中值得一提的是俄国、美
国的一些语言学家：俄国的莫斯科学派和福尔图纳托
夫，喀山学派和波兰籍俄罗斯语言学家博杜恩・德・
古尔特内，以及美国语言学家惠特尼。福尔图纳托夫
是新语法学派的主要成员，俄国语言学界的代表。他
在时代上与索绪尔同一，但在学术活动的时问上却比
索绪尔早。福尔图纳托夫代表了新语法学派由历史
比较语言学向普通语言学转变的一种新兴力蹙。在
思想上索绪尔同他很相近。博杜恩・德・古尔特内
是波兰人，长期生活在俄罗斯，是喀山学派的代表人。
他同索绪尔经常书信往来交流经验和看法，因此，他
们互相影响…。另一个对索绪尔影响很大的人是美
国语言学家惠特尼。惠特尼是耶鲁大学的梵语教授
和比较语言学教授。他的主要作品有《语言与语言
研究》（１８７６）和《语言的生命与成长》（１８７５）。惠特
尼关于语言的“符号性’’“惯例性”“任意性”“可变
性”和“不变性”的概念都是对语言学的重要贡献。
索绪尔公开承认惠特尼对欧洲语言学的影响，并高度
评价了惠特尼的贡献旧Ｊ。
在各种社会科学的影响下，索绪尔最终形成了自
己独特的语言学观点，把语言学研究推向了一个崭新
的时代。他对“语言”和“言语”的区分，对共时语言
和历时语言的研究，以及对语言的任意性和符号性的
论述曾深深地影响了几代语言学家。
２共时语言学和历时语言学的定义及特点
索绪尔在区分了语言和言语之后的另一个较大
贡献就是他提出了语言存在两种形态的概念，即语言
的历时态和共时态。对语言的共时态和历时态的研
究也就形成了共识语言学和历时语言学的研究。从
而使语言学的研究摆脱了在历史和现实之间摇摆不
定的状况；
摆脱了困惑，理清了思路，才真正使语言学
研究成为一门科学旧］。
其实，索绪尔并没有给什么是语言的共时态和历
时态下定义。他说：“共时态和历时态分别指语言的
状态和演化的阶段。”共时态指的是语言的暂时状
态，是一个时期，是一个平面。而这咀的平面弗不是
所谓的几何意义一ｔ－＿的平面，而是一种比附。它是人们
主观上的认识。索绪尔说：“系统永远只是暂时的，
会从一种状态变为另一种状态。”而所谓的共时语言
周亚华：索绪尔的共时语言学和历时语言学
学也就是研究语言的共时态的语言学。共时语言学
又称静态语言学，是由索绪尔创立的一门语言学，区
别两种语言或语音是否相同，或同一语言两种词是否
完全相同。该学科于２０世纪启蒙，其研究几乎遍及
各个主要语言。主要学派有：描写语言学派，转换生
成学派，层次语言学派等。并为美国语言学中的“结
构主义流派”和“行为主义”的产生完成了理论铺垫。
共时语言学与历时语言学的分开，标志着语言学从印
欧语系的比较声韵学走进了结构语言学。语言的历
时态是指语言的连续变化所显示的形态，是语言形态
在时间轴上显示出来的状态变化。与共时态相反，历
时态是在时间干预下所显示的形态。历时态是从纵
观的角度去审视语言所得的结果。从这个意义上讲，
历时语言学也就是研究语言的历时态的语言学。它
研究的对象并不是语言的结构系统，而是系统里的要
素的演变，是集中研究语言在较长历史时期中所经历
的变化。他主要研究语言在一定的时间跨度内所经
历的种种变化，他采用正视法（以文献考证为基础按
时间顺序来叙述一种语言的历史）和回顾法（通过比
较来重建一种语言）来研究问题。在现代语言学出
现之前，大部分语言学学者都采用这种方法来研究语
言。因此，比起共时语言学来，历时语言学经验更丰
富，积累的材料更多，因为它已经经历了整整一个世
纪的研究。索绪尔出身于历史比较语言学研究，但他
并不满足于历史比较语言学对“语言”的研究。所
以，他的贡献就凸显在此，结构主义语言学派的产生
也在于此。索绪尔关于历时语言学的研究一方面是
为了总结历史比较语言学，另一方面则是为了能更好
地论述共时语言学”ｏ。
复杂图案，然后再横着切开，横剖面又呈现出另一幅
不同的画面。横剖面上的图形相当于语言在某个时
期的状态，纵剖面上的图形相当于语言长期演化的过
程。纵剖面和横剖面是对立的，他们属于不同的层
面。共时语言现象是语言研究接触到的唯一事实，也
是语言学家接触到的唯一现实。总的来说，共时语言
学要比历时语言学重要。历时现象是可以放在语言
系统之外加以研究的。从共时语言学来说，说话者必
须忘记过去的语言才能理解说活人的心理活动，并分
析说话人的意图。而从历时语言学的角度来说，要想
研究语言的历时现象语言学家必须采用正视法和回
顾法才能研究语言在不同时期的特性。
共时语言学和历时语言学是对立的，但这并不说
明两者没有任何联系。它们之间虽有对立的一面，同
时也有互相依存的一面。语言本身就是一个系统，它
的任何部分必然存在着连带关系。从哲学意义上来
说，共时语言学包含历时语言学，历时语言学又包含
着共时语言学，二者是对立统一的关系。例如从上下
位的关系来说，对于生物来说，“动物”“植物”都是下
位概念，而对于“鸟兽鱼虫～。花草树木”来说，“动
物”和“植物”又是它们的上位概念。又如，从方位上
来说，“地球”是所有国家的上位，而“地球”同时又属
于“太阳系”的一部分，是“太阳系”的下位，而“太阳
系”又是整个“银河系”的下位。比如我们把１９１９年
以后的汉语称为现代汉语，那么相对于整个汉语史来
说，现代汉语就是一个“共时态”。但是从１９１９年至
今，人们经历了将近一个世纪，从历时态的角度来说，
世纪初的语言特点和如今的语言特点有着很大区别。
所以说，共时语言学和历时语言学是不能被割裂的，
３
共时语言学和历时语言学的关系
它们互相依存、互相包含【５ｊ。
以上从哲学的角度我们论证了历时语言学和共
索绪尔关于共时语言学和历时语言学的区分不
太容易被人们所理解，虽然共时语言学的重要地位是
被普遍认识的，但历时语言学同样不能被忽视，二者
不可偏废。索绪尔关于投影以及树纵切面和横切面
的比喻是十分贴切的，但索绪尔对共时和历时的区分
也是很有意义和价值的。他提倡纯粹语言研究，在他
看来一切语言外的研究都是次要的，真正的语言研究
应当是：在语言本身内部研究语言本身。共时和历时
的划分正是体现了他的这种思想，但共时语言学和历
时语言学的关系却不是单一的，共时语言学和历时语
言学是对立的。索绪尔曾经明确地提出了共时和历
时的对立是绝对的，不允许有任何妥协。他认为只有
共时才是系统，历时只是个别事件。正如他把语言比
作是一根树干，把树干竖着切开，纵剖面呈现出一幅
时语言学的对立统一关系，并证明了它的可靠性。但
是如今是一个“与时俱进”的时代，语言的发展可谓
是与我们的经济社会发展成正比的。在这个信息、科
技迅猛发展的时代，语言的发展也是突飞猛进的。现
如今一些网络用语、科技术语都迅速得以成长，成为
语言里的一种独特现象。比起以前来，关于共时和历
时的划分区间可能会有所不同，语言发展的时间段可
能要有更细的划分。在区分了共时后，区分历时就会
更加困难了。所以说，共时研究和历时研究总是相对
相容，是相容相克的。
４确立共时语言学和历时语言学的意义
索绪尔关于共时语言学和历时语言学的区分，在
语言学历时上具有重要的意义。索绪尔认为，共时语
・８５・
万方数据
第１８卷第４期
信阳农业高等专科学校学报
２００８年１２月
言学是静态语言学，它是研究在特定情况一Ｆ的语言状或自相矛盾的观点得到了澄清，另一方面也有力地推
态。而历时语言学则是演变的语言学，它是研究语言动了该项理沦研究工作，促使理论语言学不断向前发
的历史演变的。索绪尔关于历时语言学和共时语言展。
．学的区分旨在强调共时语言学的重要性。共时语言
索绪尔在共时和历时的区分中指出，对说话者来
学和历时语言学的性质不同。它们研究的是语言中说，唯一存在的现实是语言共时的一面，而语言事实
的不同事物，是点和面的不同，是横向和纵向的不同。“在时间上的连续是不存在的”。这就是说，要确定
这也因此决定了在研究这两种语言学时，势必会采取某个语言成分的价值，并不需要考虑它的历史来源。
不同的方法。与共时语言学相比，历时语言学的经验从而最终确定了语言共时系统的符号性质。索绪尔
更为丰富，积累的材料和方法更多。索绪尔本人出身的理论把语言研究引入到了一个新的轨道，为后人开
于历史比较语言学研究，但他并不满足于历史比较语辟了一条新的可行的研究道路。在理论方法上，他为
言学的研究，而是将其的研究领域不断地向纵深扩语言研究确定了一个相对封闭、静止，具有结构系统
展，他的杰出贡献也恰恰在此，他开创了研究语言的性的研究对象，使该项研究得以大大深入。
篇！：堡篓Ｉ些曼粤笆型萼竺圭警警翌紫孽一一
展
言学的经典理论，为以后各种语言学研究指明了前进
当然，任何理论作为人类思想和认识的成果都有
方向。他关于历时和共时的区分也同样进入了其它其相对局限性。对于索绪尔理论的局限，我们应抱有
学科领域．
科学的和历史的态度。首先，由于视角的单一，一个
从历史的角度看，索绪尔对共时语言学和历时语理论不可能涵盖研究对象的全部现象和性质。另一
言学的区分强调了共时研究的重要性，从而区别于对方面索绪尔理论的局限也是具有时代性的。这种局
语言的历史性研究。这种区分具有重要意义，因为这限是理论目标的局限，即就语言而研究语言，而放弃
样 就不得不承认语言除了有其自身的历史之外，还客．了对语言存在本质的追寻，他只停留在对语言状态的
观存在着当前的结构属性，这在语言学中是一次巨大把握上，而放弃了对原因的解释。
的变革。在共时结构的研究中，索绪尔进而指出，事
总之，毫无疑问索绪尔是语言学研究历史中的伟
物的真正本质不在于事物本身，而在于各种事物本大人物之一。其思想深刻地影响了语言学、社会科学
身，更在于各种事物之间的关系。这就是说，他主张和人文科学，促进了语言学中结构主义思潮的汹涌澎
以一种“关系的，，观点来代替原有的“实体的，，观点。湃。他对共时语言学和历时语言学的区分，确立了共
这一视角的变化是语言研究中的一次重大的历史性时语言学的重要地位，确立了语言学的性质，并为以
转折，具有特别深远的影响。索绪尔的这些看法，后后现代语言学的发展做出了突出贡献。
来被视为“结构主义”的基本原则，自然也就成了现
代语言学的主导思想。
索绪尔对现代语言学的产生和发展具有深远的
影响，这主要表现在他的许多理论观点直接为一些后
期的学派所吸收，并且反映在他的某些理论常常引起
谬考又献：
［１１犁烹等，孙维张・索绪尔与结构主义语言学［Ｍ］・长春，吉林大学
［２］翥籍；
石；
；
言学流派［Ｍ］．北京：外语教学与研究出版社，
２００２．
激烈的争论上‘引。例如，布拉格学派的雅各布逊等［３】索绪尔酱通语言学教程［Ｍ］．北京，商务印书馆，１９８０．
人认为，索绪尔在共时分析和历时分析之间设置了一
［４］张普，石定果．论历时中包含有共时共时中包含有历时［Ｊ］・
要燮整璺’三篓生堡套，翌年矍二例鬻麓黧粼（３）：６１历时－６２．语荆ｎ…农业大
调在共时描写中进行历时考察的必要性，另一方面则
强调在历时分析中必须依靠共时的系统概念。各种
学派的辩论一方面使《普通语言学教程》中某些模糊
・８６・
万方数据
【６］纪秀生．索绪尔的语言观及其影响［Ｊ］．吉林师范学院学报，
１９９４（２）３７－３８．
（编辑：刘彩霞）
索绪尔的共时语言学和历时语言学
作者：
作者单位：
刊名：
英文刊名：
年，卷(期)：
周亚华， ZHOU Ya-hua
中原工学院,外语系,河南,郑州,450001
信阳农业高等专科学校学报
JOURNAL OF XINYANG AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
2008,18(4)
参考文献(6条)
1.纪秀生索绪尔的语占观及其影响 1994(02)
2.舒春玲索绪尔共时语言学和历时语言学[期刊论文]-内蒙古农业大学学报（社会科学版） 2004(04)
3.张普;石定果论历时中包含有共时共时中包含有历时[期刊论文]-语言教学与研究 2003(03)
4.索绪尔普通语言学教程 1980
5.刘润清西方语言学流派 2002
6.刘富华;孙维张索绪尔与结构主义语言学 2003
本文链接：>
第二篇: 电影降临中的语言学
标准日语课后练习翻译及答案1-18课
1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征
Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.
Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.
What is arbitrariness?任意性
a. arbitrariness【 "ɑːbɪtrərɪnɪs】---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.) It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.
E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)
Mansion (French)
房子(Chinese)
(1)arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性
a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。
A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language therefore is largely arbitrary.
b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang ” ”crash” ”roar ” ” rumble ” ”cakle”, which are motivated in a certain sense.”
onomatopoeia拟声词---words that sound like the sounds they describe那些发音像它们的描写的声音的词
c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either. “type ” and ”write ”are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type -writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.
arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。
Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。
(2)Arbitrary at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性
According to systematic-functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. 对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。
Syntax-----it refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。
(3)Aribrtary and convention任意性和约定性
The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.语言学上的符号和它的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。
The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.任意性的相反面，即约定性。
conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.
Arbitrainess of langauge makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费力。
There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)
For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.
b. duality【djuː"ælətɪ】 (二重性):--- one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of structures , such as units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指拥有两层结构的这种特性,底层结构是上层结构的组成成分,每层都有自身的组合规则.)
duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.
the higher level ----words which are meaningful
the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.
Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f ” )
This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.
The principle of economy 经济原则
Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all language so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.). At the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.
According to HUZHUANGLIN, language is a system of two sets of structures or two levels, one of sound and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.
A small number of semantic words /units, and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.这些意义单位组成无数个句子。(Note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).
Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No anmial communication system enjoys this duality.
To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.说到语言的二重性，我们必须注意语言的等级性。
li
c. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.
creativity(创造性): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. (指语言的能产性,因为语言有二重性和递归性.)
productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language , including those that has never heard before , but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.人们能够利用语言中原有的规则来理解从未碰到过的语言符号的特征。
e.g. an experiment of bee communication:
The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ‘new’ .
In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizonta distance. The bee cannot create a ‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.
No one has never said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register.
Different from artistic creativity, productivity never goes outside the language, thus productivity is also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky)
Productivity is unique to human language. 创造性是人类语言的独一无二的特征。
d. displacement(移位性): one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.(指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体,时间和观点.)
Bee communication:
When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.
Displacement , as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real or unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.人类语言可以被用来指不在当时当地发生的事情，这就使得人类能够谈论许多事情而不受时空限制。
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak, that means language has the feature of displacement.
Language itself can be talked about too. When a man , for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it’s an unspeakable tiny share
e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmission
You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.
The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.
This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. （人类学习语言的能力有遗传基础，但任何详细的语言系统都必须通过教授和学习才能获得，这说明语言具有文化传递性，它不是靠人类的本能而获得的。）
If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.
Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫系统的。
f. interchangeability 互换性
interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog /dogs is /are “speaking” and which listening.
What features of human language have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?
Arbitrariness----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of.
Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.
Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.
Displacement----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation.
Cultural transmission-----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communication.
Why do linguists say language is human specific?
First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them.
Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did not make the linguists circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.
Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not enen when he is taken back and taught to do so.
1.5 functions of language 语言的功能
Jakobson defined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact. 雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：说话者，受话者，语境，信息，语码，接触。
Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:
Referential function-----to convey message and information所指功能：传达信息
Poetic function -----to indulge in language for its own sake 诗学功能：完全就语言而语言
Emotive function ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions 感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感情
Cognitive function ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties 意动功能：通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人
Phatic function ----to establish communion with others 交感功能：与他人建议交流
Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings 元语言功能：弄清意图、词语和意义
They correspond to such communication elements as context ,message, addresser, addressee, contact and code. 它们与一些交流活动的元素相对应，如语境，信息，说话者，受话者，接触和语码等。
Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:韩礼德提出语言元功能的理论，即语言有：
Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;概念功能：建构了经验模型和逻辑关系
Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships 人际功能：反映了社会关系
textual functions----creates relevance to context. 语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系
Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development, that is , instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.他通过观察儿童语言的发展提出了语言的七种功能，他们是工具功能，控制功能，表达功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。
1.9Important distinctions in linguistics
1.9.1Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式”和 “规定式”
prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use.(规定事情应该是怎样的.)descriptive(描写式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.(描述事情是怎样的.)
Descriptive vs. prescriptive “描写式”和 “规定式”
They represent two different types of linguistic study.
If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
What makes traditional grammar different from moden linguistics?
Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. de Saussure’ s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as “father of modern linguistics”.
The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” They differ in several basic ways:
Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of “correctness”.
Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.
Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.
1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic “共时”和 “历时”
synchronic(共时的): a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.(共时的描写以一个固定的时间(通常,但非必须是现在)为它的观察角度,大多数的语法书属于此类型.).diachronic(历时的):study of a language is carried through the course of its history.(在语言的历史过程中研究语言.)
The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
e.g (1) an essay entitled “On the sue of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alernation.
(2) a study of the features of the English used in Shakepeare’s time and would be a synchronic study, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study.
1.9.3 langue & parole “语言” 和 “言语”
langue(语言): the linguistic competence of the speaker.(说话者的语言能力.) parole(言语): the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).(语言的实际现象或语料.)
The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century.
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language.语言是一个语言社会的所有成员共同使用的抽象语言系统。言语是对于这些抽象语言系统的实际运用。
What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
(1) Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation.语言是抽象的，言语是具体的，是因人而异的。
(2) Langue not actually spoken by an individual , parole always a naturally occruing event.
(3) Langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus nto suitable for systematic investigation.
What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great important, which casts great influence on later linguists.
1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用
competence(语言能力): a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.) performance(语言应用): the actual use of language in concrete situations.(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)
The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
According to N. Chomsky, “compentence” is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language理想的语言使用者的抽象语言知识and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance , in linguistic communication. 语言使用者在语言交际中对这种抽象语言知识的实际运用。
Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.
A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a spearker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed compentence.
Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.
How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?
Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study.
How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole differ to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?
Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. de. Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual . Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistics point of view than N.Chomsky since the latter deals with his issures psychologically or psycholinguistically.索绪尔的理论与乔姆斯基的理论的不同之处在于索绪尔是从语言的社会学角度来谈论语言；
而乔姆斯基是从语言的心理学角度来谈论语言的。
2.2Consonants
Speech sounds may be classified into two major types in terms of their articulatory characteristics. The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the airstream at some point of the vocal tract are called CONSONANTS. The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called VOWELS.
a.Closed-class words vs. open-class words封闭类词和开放类词
The distinction of grammatical words and lexical words leads to distinction of “colsed-class” words and “open-class” words.语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭词类和开放词类的区别。
Closed-class word(封闭词类):------ a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. .(封闭词类的成员数目是确定的,有限的.新成员不会有规律地增加.例如代词,介词,连词,冠词等.)
open-class word(开放类词):------- a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.(开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的,无限的.例如名词,动词,形容词和多数副词.)
What are open classes? What are closed classes?In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are “open-class words”, since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.
Semantic triangle
Proposed by Ogden & Richards in their “The Meaning of Meaning”. They saw the relationship between the word and the thing it refers to is not direct. It’s mediated by concept.
thought or reference
symbol
referent
In this diagram, the symbol or form refers to linguistic elements (words, phrases), the referent refers to the things in the real world, and thought or reference refers to “concept”.
e.g. The dog over there looks unfriendly.
The word “dog” is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind, i.e. what a “dog” is like, but it is not directly linked to the referent (the particular dog) in this particular case. Thus, the symbol of a word signifies thing by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of a language, and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.
Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the following diagram, in which the “symbol” or “form” refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent” refers to the object in the world of experience, and “thought” or “reference” refers to concept or notion. Thus, the symbol a word signifies “things” by virtue of the “concept”, associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The “concept” thus considered is meaning of the word.语义三角形最大的问题在于词语与所指事物没有必然的联系。同一个事物可能或者可以用不同的词来表示。
(1) Conceptual meaning ------Logical, cognitive, or denotation content 逻辑的，认知的，或者外延的内容
conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.
Associative meaning:联想意义
(2) Connotative meaning------what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.内涵意义：通过语言所指所传达的意义
(3) Social meaning-----what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.社会意义：所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义
(4) Affective meaning-----what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.感情意义：所传达的关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义
(5) Reflected meaning------what is communicated throght association with another sense of the same expression. 反射意义：通过联系同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义
(6) Collocative meaning------what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.搭配意义：通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。
(7) Thematic meaning----what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.主题意义：通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义
5. Leech says that the first type of meaning-----conceptual meaning----makes up the central part. It is “denotative” in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refer to. In this sense, conceptual meaing overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference.利奇指出，意义的第一种类型----概念意义----构成了意义的中心部分。这种意义是“外延“的，因为它关注词和他所指事物之间的联系。从这点看，概念意义在很大程度上与指称相交叉。
6．Philosophers use connotation, opposite to denotation, to mean the properties of the entity a word denotes. For example, the denotation of human is any person such as John and Mary, and its connotation is “biped”, “featherless”, “rational”, etc.哲学家们用内涵和外延相对，表示词所指实体的性质。例如，人的外延是任何人，如约翰和玛丽；
内涵是“两足动物”“无羽毛的”“有理性的”等等。
7. “connotative”----- refers to some additional, especially emotive, meaning. 内涵指的是一些附加的，尤其是感情的意义。
denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.
connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.
2. what is sense and what is reference? How are they related?
.reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.
sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.
Sense------sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, which is a collection of semantic meanings, abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dectionary compilers are interested in.意义是词汇意义的一个侧面，它是指词汇内在的抽象，独立于语境之外的意义，也是词典字意。
Reference----reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical, it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality, between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.所指意义是词汇意义的另一个侧面，它是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。所指也叫“参照”“或“指称”，是指词和它们所代表的客观事物或现象的关系，它表现于一定的上下文之中。
(1) linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. For example: I was once bitten by a dog. / Mind you. There is a dog over there.
有着同样意义的词，在不同的情景中，它的所指也不相同。
(2) linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. For example: “morning star” and “ evening star.” 有时所指相同，但意义却不同。
４．Sense & reference
sense and reference are the two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.
Sense-----the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; It’s abstract and de-contextualized. It’s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations.
Reference-----What a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; It deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.
For example, the word “dog” is given the definition “a common domestic animal kept by human beings for work, hunting etc or as a pet”. This doesn’t refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition, so this is the sense of the word “dog”. But if we say “The dog is barking”, we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation, the word “dog” refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word “dog” in this particular situation.
To some extent, we can say every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content. But not every word has a reference e.g. grammatical words like but if etc, don’t refer to anything.
Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
e.g. I was one bitten by a dog.
Mind you. There is a dog over there.
Here the two “dog” bear the same sense, but have two different references in the two utterances.
Sometimes linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense
e.g. “morning star” and “ evening star” can refer to the same star “Venus”
5.5.2 Logical semantics 逻辑语义学
1. prepositional logic命题逻辑:---- also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.也叫命题演算或句子演算，研究命题的真值条件“复合命题真值是如何由成分命题真值及成分命题之间的关系决定的。proposition命题;-----what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.命题是陈述句并用语叙述事件时所表达的意义。predicate logic谓词逻辑------: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.也叫谓语演算，它研究简单马那瓜体的内部结构。
Prepositions-----whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement. It is property of propositions that they have truth values.
2.What is a logical operator?“Logical operator ” make only one kind of the “logical factors” or “logical means”, others being “definiteness”, “coreference”, “tense” and “time”, since predication is not the whole of a sentence or proposition. All these factors play a part in prepositional actualization of the predication ---the pining of a predication down a claim about reality. Example of logical operators are “not”, “and”, “or”, “some”, “if”, “false”, etc. The term “logical operation” reflects the fact that these meaning elements are often thought of as performing operations, controlling elements of the semantic system, so to speak.
3.What is grammaticality? What might make agrammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?
Grammaticality-----the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence. A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarity semanticaly well-formed, ie. It may not make sense at all.
4.Try to analyze the following sentences in terms of predication analysis:
(1)The man sells ice-cream.------two place predication consisting of two arguments: MAN and ICE-CREAM, and the predicate (SELL)
(2)Is the baby sleeping?-----one-place predication BABY(SLEEP)
(3)It is snowing.-----no-place predication : (SNOW)
(4)The tree grows well.----one-place predication : TREE(GROW)
(5)The old man sells toys.-----Two-place predication: MAN and TOYS are predicate(SELL)
(6)It is raining.---No-place predication
(7)It is late.-----No-place predication.
(8)Is the baby crying? -----One-place predication: BABY(CRY)
(9)The flower smells sweet.----One-place predication :FLOWER(SMELL)
(10)6.2.2 Lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义
(11)1. lexical ambiguity:词汇歧义-------ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.
(12)bug (臭虫；
窃听器) ；
rose（玫瑰；
rise的过去式）
(13)2. There are two main theories:
(14) (1). All the meanings assocatied with the word are accessed, and (2) only one meaning is accessed initially. 主要有两种理论：搜索该词所有意义；
开始只考虑其中一个意义。
(15)3. e.g. :
(16)a. After taking the right turn at the intersection….在路口右转之后；
在路口沿正确的方向转弯之后
(17) “right” is ambiguous: correct vs. rightward
(18)b. After taking the left turn at the intersection…在路口左转之后 “left” is unambiguous
1.1.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.
(1) prescriptive vs. descriptive
Prescriptive----the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.
Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.
Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from grammar in that the latter is based on “high”(religious/literary) written language.
(2) Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.
Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.
A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.